False Choice - An Investigation into the Concept of Belief Voluntariness
Introduction
Beliefs are essential in how we perceive and operate in the world around us. However, do the beliefs that influence the thoughts we have and the values we hold really under our control? In other words, is the nature of belief such that it makes it possible for us to choose to believe what we want voluntarily?
Before we fully address the question of the voluntariness of beliefs, we must first define what we mean when we use the term "belief". There is agreement among most analytic philosophers that belief is (roughly) a dispositional, affirmative attitude towards a proposition or state of affairs. [i] Secondly, what does it mean for something to be "voluntary?" Generally, the term "voluntary" refers to processes produced by choice or intention and under cortical control, in contrast to automatic processes that are not intended. [ii]
Therefore, in this essay, I aim to convince you that beliefs are not voluntary because we cannot have direct control over them, as factors beyond our conscious control influence their very formation.
A degree of volitional control and doxastic voluntarism
As human beings, we have evolved over time to value the ability to make our own choices and decisions and to exercise our values and desires; in other words, we value autonomy. Due to the progress in our reasoning and evaluation of evidence, we develop an element of volition. Therefore, as independent and critical thinkers, we have the power and control to actively reflect on reasons and justifications to support our beliefs, examine the evidence, and voluntarily and consciously choose to adjust, modify, or discard beliefs based on the information available.
Another argument supporting the voluntariness of beliefs can be drawn from the concept of doxastic voluntarism [iii]. This philosophical doctrine distinguishes between two types of voluntary control: direct voluntary control, which refers to acts which are such that if a person chooses to perform them, they happen immediately, and indirect voluntary control, which relates to actions which are such that although a person lacks direct voluntary control over them, they can cause them to happen if an individual chooses to perform some number of other, intermediate actions. Additionally, doxastic voluntaries further the concept of intellectual autonomy and reinforce the notion that individuals can overcome influences that shape their beliefs by exercising independent thought and judgement in belief formation. Furthermore, self awareness about pre-conceived biases allows individuals to recognise when irrational thinking patterns are influencing their beliefs, and it by engaging in meta-cognition; we can exercise greater control over our beliefs.
Philosophers like William K Clifford, particularly in his essay "The Ethics of Belief (1877)", explore epistemic responsibility and its role in belief formation. This view also suggests that individuals are free to shape their beliefs actively and participate in the belief formation process. By engaging in self-reflection and making deliberate choices, beliefs can be seen as voluntary acts of personal agency.
While various internal and external factors can influence beliefs, individuals can ultimately exercise a level of agency in forming, revising, and maintaining their beliefs. Hence, this may suggest that our beliefs are voluntary; we feel in control of each stage of our rational reasoning in forming our beliefs.
Cognitive biases and the illusion of control
However, it could also be argued that the evolutionary desire to remain in control can influence our perception of control over our beliefs as, due to the presence of numerous cognitive biases, we subconsciously aim to attribute such beliefs to our own sense and agency than evaluate external factors that may have led to those beliefs.
Cognitive biases can be generally described as systematic, universally occurring tendencies, inclinations, or dispositions in human decision-making that may make it vulnerable to inaccurate, suboptimal, or wrong outcomes[iv]. These biases can operate at a subconscious level and influence the way in which we perceive, process, and interpret information and, consequently, affect the formation of our beliefs.
According to confirmation bias, people tend to process information by looking for or interpreting information that is consistent with their existing beliefs. This biased approach to decision-making is largely unintentional, and it results in a person ignoring information that is inconsistent with their beliefs[v]. Due to this underlying influence of confirmation bias, individuals may not be fully aware that they are engaging in biased information processing and driven by cognitive mechanisms that favour information consistent with existing beliefs. In this sense, it could be said that belief formation and change over time happen automatically and involuntarily, as people may genuinely believe that they are being objective, while their biased processing is left unnoticed.
Moreover, confirmation bias can also lead individuals to resist information that contradicts their beliefs than critically considering it; and this resistance to contradictory evidence supports the involuntary nature of belief maintenance, as individuals tend to protect and reinforce their existing beliefs instead of willingly challenging and modifying them.
Although confirmation bias can be overcome by conscious effort and frequent engagement with critical thinking, this is only one psychological aspect in the broader field of the voluntariness of beliefs. For instance, our emotions can also influence our beliefs, which are not often under our direct voluntary control. An individual's emotional responses and personal experiences can override rational deliberation.
Additionally, the voluntariness of beliefs rests on more than the ability to overcome underlying biases. Despite growing awareness and research about certain biases, our thoughts continue to be influenced by unconscious cognitive processes that we have limited control over and factors beyond our voluntary control. Cognitive neuroscience studies have shown that a substantial portion of mental processing occurs at an unconscious level. It is concluded that in both phylogeny and ontogeny, actions of an unconscious mind precede the arrival of a conscious mind—that action precedes reflection [vi] Therefore, the existence of several independent unconscious behavioural guidance systems limit the extent to which beliefs can be considered entirely voluntary.
During childhood and early stages of cognitive development, individuals absorb beliefs from their environment due to implicit learning without conscious awareness or deliberate effort [vii]. Not only that, culture, society, and upbringing also play a crucial role in belief formation, all of which suggest that factors beyond individual control can influence the foundation of beliefs. While individuals may later question these beliefs, the initial adoption of beliefs as a consequence of familial influence is not a voluntary choice. Moreover, how can we account for those people who've never had their initial beliefs or perspective challenged by others? Some individuals may be raised in environments that lack exposure to alternative belief systems, and this absence of diverse views can limit opportunities for critical evaluation. Furthermore, a self perpetuating cycle of belief systems is formed when individuals hold interconnected and mutually supportive beliefs in the absence of challenges. Such a person is not only devoid of the option to explore other beliefs but unaware of the subconscious and unconscious processes that have led them to hold beliefs they think they do through their false sense of agency.
Here's another analogy to highlight the problem with the voluntariness of beliefs: if it is our power to form a belief by choice, then it should equally be in our power to discard a belief. However, beliefs often have emotional attachments and personal significance to individuals. Emotions ties stemming from fear, identity preservation, or social belonging can make it challenging to voluntarily discard a belief, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Moreover, studies conducted in group polarisation [viii] prove that when individuals are exposed to group consensus, their desire for social acceptance and fear of ostracism reinforces their existing beliefs.
Therefore, this suggests that belief change may not be as voluntary as belief formation, as emotional attachments and social pressures can hinder the ability to discard a belief solely based on choice.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the overall complexity of conscious and unconscious processes, including external influences and cognitive biases that affect an individual's beliefs, ultimately limit the voluntariness of belief, which makes it evident that beliefs cannot be purely voluntary.
Even those individuals who strive to be rational and exercise doxastic voluntarism and epistemic responsibility are not immune to the pervasiveness of unconscious processes and cognitive biases on belief formation. The addition of external factors of environment, upbringing, and social pressure to conform all have powerful influences on beliefs, often working outside of our conscious control.
Endnotes
[i] Chignell, Andrew, "The Ethics of Belief", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
[ii] APA Dictionary of Psychology
[iii] Vitz, Rico (2008). Doxastic voluntarism. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [iv] Tversky A., Kahneman D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases.
[v] https://www.britannica.com/science/confirmation-bias
[vi] Bargh, J. A., & Morsella, E. (2008). The unconscious mind. Perspectives on Psychological Science
[vii] Reber, A. S. (1993). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious. Oxford University Press.
[viii] Myers, D. G., & Lamm, H. (1976). The group polarisation phenomenon.